As displayed in domestic artwork, Eros has had a range of meanings throughout antiquity. Conceived as a religious figure of fertility and reproduction in early cultic associations with Aphrodite, his first appearance in Classical Greece was seen in places of worship. With the artistic transformations of the Hellenistic period so too did the conception of Eros, becoming an icon of sensuality in replacement for his traditional symbolism. It was from this model that the citizens of Antioch, the capital of the Seleucid Empire, inherited in their representation of Eros. Even when Antioch became a Roman province in the early 1st century AD, patrons of domestic art continued to exalt their Greek heritage in their depiction of Eros as an icon of physical love and later the force that drives human desire. The eponymous Peddler of Erotes mosaic uses this iconography to represent eros as an icon of physical love that can be consumed.
In March 1935 three mosaic pavements were discovered by Princeton University in three adjoining rooms of a house located outside of Saint Paul’s Gate on the road to Aleppo in Antioch. One of these rooms contained the Peddler mosaic with an emblema measuring 1.9 by 2.15 meters inside a 4.4 by 4.5 meter space, surrounded by a red twisted ribbon border limited by two lines (fig. 1). Compositionally, the work represents a series of seemingly unrelated vignettes positioned on their own ground lines and occupying their own space. In the lower right register is the vignette for which the mosaic is given its title, as an old man is in the act of catching a fleeing eros by the left wrist in order to place him in a cage where an eros limp by defeat lies. To the left is a cockfighting scene, overlooked by two eros cheering on the battle. Moving upwards is a scene of an eros fishing on a reef overlooking the sea, depicted with left arm outstretched to reel in the fish hooked on his pole, a recent victory to be placed in the creel located behind him. To his right is a sleeping eros, sprawled over a rock outcropping with a torch in tucked under the right side of his body. Lastly, in uppermost right corner is an eros standing with bow and arrow wearing a baldric across his chest, delimited by branches on either side of his head. To emphasis the segregation of events, the artist uses border motifs, branches, laurel wreaths, or flowers, to enclose the activities.
In order to derive the significance of the erotes in the Peddler of Erotes a dating must be established for the mosaic. A Roman lamp dating to the 1st century AD was discovered underneath the floor of one of the mosaics alongside sherds of early Roman earthenware, giving only an approximate terminus post quem. Doro Levi, one of the leading archaeologist on the site, gave a dating between 235-312 AD in his original 1947 publication of the mosaics. More recent discoveries confirm his dating through the stylistic comparison between tomb paintings found in Anemurium, Cicilia, dated to the 3rd-century AD. These paintings were cleaned and conserved in the excavation season of 1974 by Professor James Russell in the process of restoring the structure of four tombs on the site. On the northwest vault of restored Tomb B1 16 was a painting of a male bust encircled by a wreath medallion (fig. 2). Written between his head is the word ΧΕΙΜΩΝ or winter, denoting his personification of the season. Situated adjacent to this painting is the depiction of Autumn, a naked winged youth with sickle and basket striding to the left (fig. 3). All of the paintings in the room were created by one artistic program, as the rendering of the Hermes located on the S Wall maintains the same three-dimensional effect through shadowing, “plastic molding of the head” and “highlighting of the face” as the other forms (fig. 4). Russell states that like Antioch these ‘artless depictions’ were typical of Roman provincial art of the time.
The Anemurium paintings date the Peddler mosaic to the 3rd-century AD through direct and indirect stylistic comparisons. By the fact that all of the Anemurium paintings were created at one time so must the two mosaic pavements with polychromatic geometric design found on the floor of tomb B1 16 dated to the 3rd-century. This dating is further confirmed by other tomb paintings found in Rome and the Septimius Severus tondo (fig. 5) which share similar corkscrew beards with Winter, all dated to the early 3rd-century. The depiction of Winter and Autumn are then connected to the Peddler of Erotes through the contemporaneously dated ΒΙΟC mosaic situated in the adjoining room (fig. 6). Also personifying an abstract concept, Life is presented as a female bust wearing a wreath of red and pink flowers as a headpiece and necklace. Compositionally the same bust delimited by geometric border with name written in Greek above the head, Winter and Life share the same fine molded nose, oblique glance and shadowing under the eyes. This is coupled by the similarity in modeling the naked male youth, as Autumn and the hunting eros in the upper righthand corner of the Peddler mosaic share the same oblique glance, plasticity in modeling, and evenly portioned torso to legs.
If the Peddler of Erotes is dated to the 3rd-century AD the mosaic falls into a period of Roman rule of Antioch. Founded by Seleucus I Nikator after the Battle of Ipsus, Antioch-on-the-Orontes was established as the capital of the Seleucid Empire in 300 BC. The origins of the city reach back into the history of the Hellenistic period, as Seleucus I established his empire through his generalship under Alexander III, being elected satrap of Babylon in 320BC and collaborating with Lysimachus and Cassander against Antigonus I and Demetrius I at Ipsus in 301BC. After this decisive battle, Seleucus proceeded to conquer territory in the Near East, leaving the southern coastline of Asia Minor accessible to establish his domain. With Ptolemy Soter still in possession of Syria and Demetrius I maintaining the Phoenician coastline, Seleucus established his capital in a strategic location for trade from both the Euphrates and the Mediterranean while being protected from direct naval attack.
As a proponent of Greek civilization Seleucus and his successors would finance fine arts that highlighted their Hellenistic heritage. Local settlers from Antigonia, mainly Athenian migrants, Macedonians and Jews constituted its earliest population. Even after the Seleucid Empire collapsed in the late 2nd-century BC and was incorporated into the Roman Empire as a province in the early 1st century AD, Antioch retained its Greek identity. When the protection of the city passed from royal claimants and viceroys to a Roman governor, the unifying force was to reenforce the Greek nature of the city-state. Its citizens were not subject under Roman jurisdiction nor forced to pay tribute to Rome. Pompey is said to have rebuilt the ruined assembly of Antiochus Epiphanes in 64BC, while Caesar paid for extensions to architectural monuments and the construction of the Caesarum.
The exaltation of Greek culture persisted even with the provincial system established by Octavian after his victory at Actium in 31BC. Antioch became one of the four most important cities in the Roman world, taking on the features of a Roman city. The dedication of the temple to Jupiter Capitolinus on Mount Silipius, a forum, circus, Agrippian bathes and Roman aqueduct system all became features of the city.14 The legal system also became standardized by the Roman model, with two archons and high property qualifications to hold office. During the 3rd century Antioch received the Roman emperors graciously, Caracalla was welcomed by the citizens when elected consul. In reciprocation the emperors bestowed gifts upon the city, Septimius Severus is said to have financed the construction of new baths and even inherited local tradition, seen in Septimius Severus’ locally commissioned coinage with legend Σευρηια Ολυμπια Επινεικια.
With the elevation of Greek culture, the depiction of the erotes in the Peddler mosaic is based in the artwork of Classical Greece. Eros, the son of Aphrodite, was born by poets as early as Hesiod who describes Eros in the Theogony as one of the primordial entities, “the fairest among the deathless gods, who unnerves the limbs and overcomes the mind and wise counsels of all gods and all men within them”. As one of the only personifications given the status of a fully individualized god, contention whether Eros had an established cult in Archaic Greece or was merely poetic invention raises the question as to his worship. His absence in texts until Euripides fifth-century BC work Hippolytus where ερως is “tyrant of men, the keyholder of Aphrodite’s dearest chambers, we do not worship” suggests he was not a cult-god. And still later Aristophanes explains in Plato’s Symposium, written in the early 4th century-BC, that Eros has been neglected by Mankind, lacking sanctuaries, altars, and sacrifices. The literary works indicate that Eros was attached to Aphrodite, a companion instead of an independently worshiped god.
Eros dependence on Aphrodite is substantiated by archaeological data at Thespiae and Athens where a rock-cut shrine dedicated to Eros and Aphrodite. Identified as “Aphrodite in the Gardens”, the shrine was discovered in 1931 by O. Broneer on the North slope of the Acropolis. At Athens two inscriptions from 5th-century show that a festival of Eros took place in the fourth day of the month Mounychion:
τοι Εροτι hε εορτε
τ]ετραδι ισταμεν[ο
μονιχιον[ο]ς μενος (a)
‘Αφροδιτ[ες] (b)
The month of Mounychion was celebrated in the springtime, a season that marked Aphrodite’s birthday. This close connection between Eros and Aphrodite in the Classical period suggests that Eros shared Aphrodite’s role as deity of reproduction and fecundity.
Eros’s association as Aphrodite’s son to individually invoked god came with his cultural transformation between the 5th and 3rd-century BC. Hymns to Eros in Euripides’ Antigone and Hippolytus reflect upon the god’s omnipotence over their emotions, described as “the unconquered in battle” and “bringing sweet pleasure to the souls of those against whom you make war”(( Breitenberger 141. )). Even inside cult worship Eros slowly became associated with the sensual aspects of love. Phyrne, a hetaira living in Thespiae in the 4rd-century BC, is said to have been depicted in statuary with Aphrodite and Eros dedicated to the temple. As the most famous ‘εταιρη, lover of many men including Praxiteles who used her as a model for the Knidian Aphrodite, her close association with Eros and Aphrodite denote Eros’ sexual symbolism.(( Eur. Hipp. 525-64., Breitenberger 143. ))
The sensual aspect of Eros personification was thus established in depictions of the love-god, as Hellenistic epigrams and art emphasized his erotic nature. Alongside his depiction with Aphrodite, Eros was associated with Psyche, the winged female personification of the soul, in art of 4th-century BC and later. The 5th-century Platonic perception of erotic love between the couple is seen in art of the time depicting the “standing together in quiet harmony”. As Socrates states, “I say that the desire which overcomes the rational opinion…which is led away toward the enjoyment of beauty and again is strongly forced by the desires that are kindred to itself toward personal beauty…takes its name from that very force, and is called Love”. This rational perspective did not persist into the Hellenistic period, as Eros and Psyche were represented as an ‘erotic group’, reviving images created by the poets Sappho, Ibycus and Anacreon of Eros as lover of Psyche (fig. 7).
The representation of Eros and Psyche shifted in the 3rd-2nd-century BC, as love was depicted as causing man’s desire, manifest in the metaphor of ‘Eros as Charioteer of the Soul’. First appearing in Anacreon’s lyric poetry, Eros is the beloved “Boy with the looks of a girl, I pursue you but do not attend, not knowing that you are the charioteer of the soul”. The erotic epigrams of Meleager further describes this differing representation, “Cypris throws the torch that kindles mad love for women; Eros drives as charioteer the desire for love of the male”. These poets among others may have inspired a series of paintings and mosaics of Eros as Charioteer, displacing the overt erotic representation for this metaphor. A mosaic from Daphne dated to the 3rd-century AD is the most clear manifestation, as the youthful winged Eros drives two Psyches, presented as the alternate translation of φυχης or butterflies, across the sky (fig. 8). The perception of love in Greek iconography became Eros as the force that ‘drives’ human desire.
The erotes in the Peddler of Erotes maintain the erotic symbolism embedded in Eros’ iconography. Neither Aphrodite nor Psyche are shown in the mosaic, making for no direct connection between the erotes and Hellenistic icons. Instead the actions performed by the erotes in each vignette points to his sexual undertones, creating the unifying force between the seemingly unrelated events. Fishing and hunting, performed by the central left and upper right vignettes, is associated with erotic love. In Ars Amatoria, Ovid describes the hobbies of hunting, fishing, and birding symbolically as a means to appropriate a woman. One must trap or catch a girl in the same manner one traps an animal or catches a fish. The eros on the rock outcropping further symbolizes the physical nature of love, as he is displayed with a mirror and flame in hand. Peering downwards in a reclining pose reminiscent of Narcissus, the eros’s pose with mirror is associated with feminine narcissism, a feature that is directly connected with physical aspect of love. The flaming torch, a symbol of unbridled passion juxtaposes the otherwise languid scene. The erotes cheering on a cock fight are the clearest representation of his erotic meaning, as “by nature the cocks had a lust for fighting, dueling sometimes to the death and crowing loudly when victorious”. Shown mid-fight facing each other in a duel to the death, the cocks in mosaics are similar to those from Pompeii display wagered items in the contest. The sexual tension produced by the cocks’ “lust for fighting” and warlike nature transfers onto the symbolic meaning of the cheering erotes and overall vignette, becoming a symbol of sexual tension and desire.
While the erotes display the sensual nature found in Hellenistic representations of Eros, the Peddler of Erotes diverges in conception of love and its relationship with mankind. The peddler, an old man seen capturing an eros vainly attempting to escape by the wrist, shows mortal man interacting with this divine being. He is neither overcome by the physical nor emotional power of love described by the Hellenistic epigrams nor driven by it. Instead he is the victor over both forces, indicated by his ability to successfully ensnare not one but two erotes. A late 1st century BC fresco from Stabiae shows erotes “tendered in the commerce of a lonely woman’s heart” through the display of ware to a noblewoman (fig 9). A similar depiction can be found in early 1st century AD Roman art at Pompeii, as a peddler is also seen offering an eros for sale to a figure identified as Aphrodite (fig. 10). The capability to capture and commodify love in these works shows a different perspective than Eros’s depiction in the Classical period as omnipotent being. The close association with these paintings suggests that the erotes in the Peddler of Erotes mosaic are icons of erotic love that are meant to be consumed.
Given the 3rd-century dating from the Peddler of Erotes mosaic, the portrayal of Eros has its heritage in Greek culture. The commissioners of artwork from the city of Antioch were fond of Greek culture and its aesthetics reaching back to the Hellenistic period. The sensual nature of the erotes in the vignettes point to his iconography as god of physical love, associated with Greek goddess Aphrodite and later as lover of Psyche. His iconography is complicated by the fact that he does not manifest himself solely as the force that drives human desire in the Peddler mosaic. Instead he is the object of desire, shown by his depiction as the hunted as well as the hunter. Therefore, the erotes in the Peddler of Erotes mosaic utilize Hellenistic iconography of eros to represent the patron’s perception of erotic love as a commercial item.